Jan. 13, 2025
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Here at RatedPower, solar photovoltaic system design is our bread and butter. However, we know this technology can be difficult to understand as it&#;s constantly evolving and driven by complex mechanisms.
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That&#;s why we&#;ve created this back-to-basics article on solar photovoltaic systems. Read on for more!
Photovoltaic, derived from the Greek words for light and energy, phos and volt, refers to the conversion of light directly into electricity. Literally translated, it means &#;light energy.&#;
This conversion is achieved through the use of semiconductor materials, such as silicon and cadmium telluride.
Solar technology has a long history, longer than you might think. In fact, the first recorded mention of solar technology was back in when Swiss scientist Horace-Benedict de Saussure designed what he called a &#;solar collector cell.&#;
These solar collector cells were essentially glorified magnifying glasses, with multiple layers of glass focusing the sun into an insulated box to capture the heat generated. After this, the next and perhaps most significant leap came in .
Young French scientist Edmond Becquerel first observed the photovoltaic effect when experimenting with conductance and illumination. The photovoltaic effect is the process by which sunlight is converted into electricity, although it would be a number of years from this first observation until the process was understood and described for the first time.
A number of scientists made contributions to the field during the rest of the s, with the photovoltaic effect being observed in selenium which later led to the construction of the first selenium solar cell in . At this time, scientists knew that the photovoltaic effect worked but no one knew how.
The theory behind the photovoltaic effect was first described by a familiar name, Albert Einstein. In his paper, Einstein described what he termed the &#;photoelectric effect,&#; laying out the photovoltaic effect in detail for the first time. This discovery would go on to net him the Nobel Prize in physics in .
The first practical solar cell was developed in by scientists at the Bell Laboratory. With this first boundary crossed, the US government began pouring substantial funding into solar PV research with the hopes of creating viable solar panels to be used on orbiting satellites.
With the increased time and resources being dedicated to research and development, solar PV technology came on leaps and bounds in the following decades, including becoming the universal source of power for space operations.
In , researchers in Australia reported a crystalline silicon solar cell with an efficiency of 25%. This represented over 80% of the theoretical maximum of such cells that had previously been established. This breakthrough was swiftly followed in by the total installed capacity of solar cells exceeding MW.
With this milestone, solar PV had finally become a viable, utility-scale power solution. In the past 20 years, solar technology has continued to improve, with new types of solar cells being developed and solar panels being made available for commercial use, leading to a boom in residential solar arrays.
Now that we&#;ve looked at the history of photovoltaics, let&#;s look in more detail at exactly how they work.
A photovoltaic (PV) cell is the physical piece of equipment that converts light into electricity. PV cells usually consist of a number of different layers, each serving a specific purpose. These layers will differ depending on the type of cell but typically include:
PV cells convert light into electrical energy through a process called the photovoltaic effect. As previously mentioned, his was first observed in by Edmond Becquerel and works in the following way:
Two layers of semiconductor, p-type and n-type, are put together to form a p-n junction
Electrons move between the two layers to form an electrical field, which causes positively charged particles to move in one direction and negatively charged particles to move in the other
When photons, energy particles in light, hit the semiconductor layer, the energy they are carrying is transferred to the electrons in the p-n junction
These electrons move to a higher energy level and move through the semiconductor material
Due to the electrical field in the p-n junction, the electrons move in one direction creating an electrical current
This electrical energy can then be transferred or stored
There are a number of different types of PV cells, including silicon-based, thin-film, and perovskite.
Silicon-based cells are far and away the most popular type of PV cells. They are made by forming a crystalline silicon lattice that is very efficient at converting light into electricity. With silicon being very abundant and the crystalline lattice fairly easy to manufacture, silicon-based cells offer high power output, low-cost cells with a long life expectancy.
Thin-film PV cells are made by laying one or several layers of conducting material, usually cadmium telluride or copper indium gallium diselenide, directly on either the front or back of the module&#;s surface.
Perovskite cells are a relatively new development in the PV space, but one that has advanced more rapidly than any other. They are made by layering conducting materials onto a supportive layer known as a substrate. They provide high energy efficiency, similar silicon-based cells, and research is being done into increasing their longevity.
Solar panels, or modules, are then manufactured by taking individual solar cells and clustering them together into one structure.
As covered in the previous section, there are a number of different materials that solar photovoltaic modules can be made from. These are specific materials that can be used to most effectively generate the photovoltaic effect and in turn produce electricity. Due to the limited number of suitable materials for PV module construction, the prices of said materials are intrinsically linked to the cost of module manufacturing.
Given its place as the most popular, and arguably most important, material in PV module development, polysilicon prices are most closely tied to the overall price of photovoltaic modules. There has been a great deal of movement in the price of polysilicon in recent years, with the material currently experiencing a low, leading to lower prices for PV modules.
In China, however, the world&#;s largest solar module manufacturer has seen an increase in polysilicon prices in recent months. The fluctuations in prices are driven by a variety of factors, such as bounce back after the pandemic and tariffs on imports and exports. In practice, these fluctuations can lead to instability in the market and can stunt progress when it is needed most.
Of course, polysilicon is not the only material used in the manufacture of solar modules. Aluminum, for example, is used in almost every solar panel made, regardless of the type of the panel, again tying the price of the metal inextricably to the cost of manufacture.
Other materials, such as perovskite, cadmium, and copper are also used in the manufacture of different types of PV panels and their costs must be taken into account, especially given their relative scarcity compared to silicon and aluminum.
A photovoltaic system refers to the entire system created to produce electricity and delivers it to either the grid or to end users. There are two main types of PV systems:
Grid-connected (on-grid) &#; These PV systems are directly connected to the electrical grid and deliver electricity straight to the main supply
Stand-alone (off-grid) &#; These PV systems contain battery energy storage solutions (BESS) that collect the electricity generated and store it. This electricity can then be used as and when it is needed.
Hybrid &#; These are PV systems that combine with other energy sources such as wind or hydro turbines, fuel cells or diesel generators
In order to generate and supply electricity, there are a number of components that work in tandem that have a direct effect on its output:
Photovoltaic modules &#; As discussed above, these modules are where sunlight is converted into electricity through the photovoltaic effect
Module structures &#; These are the physical supports that hold the modules in place. Strategic and intelligent design is required to optimize the efficiency of solar modules
Inverters &#; PV modules produce direct current (DC) electricity. The role of the solar inverter is to convert this DC electricity into alternating current (AC) electricity that is used by the utility grid
Transmission cables &#; This is how the electricity is delivered from the modules to where it needs to go
Storage systems &#; Some PV systems will contain BESS to store the electricity that is generated for use when and where it is required
One of the key considerations for most PV systems is maximizing efficiency. There are a couple of factors at play here. First is the efficiency of the modules themselves, or, what percentage of the solar energy that hits a solar panel is converted into electricity.
Solar panel efficiency varies depending on the type of solar panel used but typically, you can expect somewhere between 17 - 20% efficiency for most solar panels. There have been PV panels developed that achieve far higher efficiencies than this, but these are currently not commercially viable.
The other thing to consider is the overall efficiency of a solar installation. This will be affected by things like near and far shading, the types of trackers used, and the climate of the chosen site. Ultimately, how a solar installation is designed will determine how efficient it is, making the design stage one of the most crucial stages in solar development.
The primary and most important application of a photovoltaic system is the generation of clean, renewable electricity. Since photovoltaic cells convert sunlight into electricity, this energy source is inherently renewable, as long as the sun continues to shine, the electricity will continue to flow.
PV systems also do not produce any harmful emissions, such as carbon dioxide. This lack of emissions makes solar energy clean and therefore not harmful to the environment nor a contributor to climate change.
PV systems also have the potential to offer solar power to localized, underserved communities. With the rapid development of commercial PV technology, consumers can install small PV systems on their homes or businesses, supplying themselves with clean solar energy and potentially earning extra income by selling excess energy back to the grid.
Finally, PV systems, especially those with built-in BESS, have the potential to alleviate grid instability by providing a renewable source of solar energy if the main grid goes down.
Dive into some of the largest PV plants in the world and some upcoming projects that will add further to global solar capacity by downloading out eBook: The Largest PV Plants Worldwide.
Country
Solar generation capacity (MW)
Population
Watts per person
Estimated solar energy generation (GWh)
China
609,921
1,410,710,000
432
664,439
United States
139,205
334,914,895
416
227,711
Japan
89,077
124,516,650
715
96,981
Germany
81,739
84,482,267
968
96,453
India
73,109
1,428,627,663
51
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96,981
Brazil
37,449
216,422,446
173
44,225
Australia
32,612
26,638,544
1,224
39,160
Spain
31,016
48,373,336
641
43,304
Italy
29,795
58,761,146
507
34,129
Netherlands
23,904
17,879,488
1,337
20,829
Numbers represent both solar thermal and solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity generation as of the end of , sourced from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). Generation numbers estimated based on production ratios from IRENA. Population numbers for the same point in time sourced from the World Bank.
China leads the world in solar power generation, with 609,921 megawatts (MW) of installed capacity as of December . That is more than four times the amount of solar installed than the second place United States, but both countries have about the same number of installed watts per person because China&#;s population is so much greater.
The rest of the top 10 include Japan, India, and Australia, alongside European countries like Germany, Italy, Spain, and The Netherlands, all of which have high demand for renewable energy. Not shown on this list are France, the United Kingdom, and Poland, which are 12th, 14th, and 15th in the world in terms of installed capacity. South Korea (11th place) and Vietnam (13th) round out the top 15.
When looking at the number of watts per capita, The Netherlands comes in first, with 1,337. That&#;s more than three 400-watt solar panels per person! But the amount of electricity generated from solar in the Netherlands is much lower than in other countries because the country experiences much less sun overall.
These numbers illustrate the difference between power and energy. All solar panels are able to generate a certain amount of power under full sun, but the amount of energy they produce over time depends on the total amount of sunlight they receive. Solar panels are more effective in sunnier places on the Earth.
Solar radiation produced from the sun&#;s energy is abundant in most places on Earth, but some locations are more suitable for solar power generation than others. Solar installations have higher electricity production in places where the sun shines all year long, such as in deserts and high plateaus.
Some of the countries with the most sunlight are on the top 10 solar capacity list, such as Australia and India, but there is huge potential in Africa and South America to grow solar generation.
State
Installed solar capacity (MW)
California
38,565
Texas
21,310
Florida
12,449
North Carolina
7,267
Arizona
7,201
Nevada
6,179
New York
5,293
Georgia
4,603
Massachusetts
4,286
Virginia
4,647
Source: U.S. EIA Electric Power Monthly, November , Table 6.2B
In the United States, California is the leader in installed solar energy capacity, with 38,565 megawatts (MW) as of August . Solar capacity in Texas is growing quickly, and despite being known for wind energy, the state may overtake California in solar capacity in the next two years.
As the table shows, most solar generating capacity is located in very sunny states, but places like New York and Massachusetts are on the list because of state policies that encourage the development of renewable energy sources like solar projects.
The data used in the table above includes numbers for solar thermal and solar PV capacity from both large-scale power plants and small-scale power system installations. The top four states for solar capacity (California, Texas, Florida, and North Carolina) have more capacity together than all other states combined.
Calculate how many solar panels you need to power your specific homeAs with the data on power capacity and energy production, China also leads the world in solar manufacturing. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), Chinese manufacturers built 510 gigawatts (GW) of solar modules in , accounting for 84.6% of the market.
Here are the numbers for the top five countries:
Country
GW of solar modules manufactured in
China
510
Vietnam
21
India
16.6
Thailand
14.1
United States
13.5
Data source: IEA Trends in PV Applications
In addition to accounting for the vast majority of solar module manufacturing, China also produces nearly all of the necessary raw materials and components, including 92% of the polysilicon, 98% of silicon wafers, and 91.8% of solar cells in the world.
United States solar manufacturing has long been dominated by First Solar, which makes modules using thin-film solar technology, which is used in utility-scale solar farms. Recently, the country has experienced rapid growth in silicon-based solar manufacturing, driven by incentives in the Inflation Reduction Act of . The U.S. also has a small but significant amount of polysilicon raw material mining.
China uses the most solar power of all countries in the world. In addition, China produces the vast majority of raw materials and finished products in the solar industry, accounting for nearly 85% of all solar panels manufactured worldwide.
As the world seeks to curb carbon emissions by replacing fossil fuels with clean energy sources like solar and wind power, there is an enormous opportunity for all countries to build new solar power capacity and manufacturing facilities.
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